Abstract  

Several fungi species colllected int he Hawaiian Islands have been reported to be psychoactive. Previous chemical analyses together with the present study indicate that five coprophilous and one non-coprophilous species occurring in the islands are now known to contain psychoactive alkaloids. At least some of these species are consumed in the Hawaiian Islands, as well as elsewhere, for non-traditional, recreational purposes. These include Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. et Br.) Singer, Copelandia tropicalis (Ola'h) Singer and Weeks(syn. Panaeolus tropicalis Ola'h), Copelandia anomala Murrill, and Panaeolus subbalteatus (Berk. and Br.) Sacc., which have already been described from the Hawaiian Islands. Three more mind-altering fungi and one non-psychoactive species are reported from this archipelago for the first time. These psychoactive fungi include Copelandia bispora (Malençon et Bertault) Singer and Weeks from O'ahu, Copelandia cambodginiensis (Ola'h et Heim) Singer and Weeks from O'ahu, and Amanita muscaria (L.) Hooker from Kaua'i. Panaeolus goossensiae Beeli identified from O'ahu contains tryptamine compounds; however, the psychoactive alkaloids of psilocybin and psilocin were not found in this dung species.

 

Keywords:Hawai'i; Copelandia spp.; Panaeolus spp.; psilocin; psilocybin

1. Introduction
 

Non-traditional, recreational use of psychoactive fungi in the Hawaiian Islands has occurred for many years (Pollock, l974; Allen, l988; Allen and Merlin l989). Previous research of any kind pertaining to these species in Hawai'i has been very limited. Recent field work, botanical identification, and chemical analyses indicate that six species belonging to Coprinaceae are used for recreational, albeit illicit, purposes in the Hawaiian Islands. These include: Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. et Br.) Singer (Figs. 1 and 2), Copelandia tropicalis (Ola'h) Singer and Weeks, Copelandia bispora (Malençon et Bertault) Singer and Weeks (Figs. 3 and 4), Copelandia cambodginiensis (Ola'h et Heim) Singer and Weeks (Fig. 5), Copelandia anomala Murrill, and Panaeolus subbalteatus (Berk. et Br.) Saccardo (Figs. 6-7). Most of these melanosporous species, except C. anomala, are primarily coprophilous, found growing in ruminant dung, or occurring in grassy areas where manure had previously been deposited (Table 1). They all contain the hallucinogenic indole alkaloids of psilocybin and psilocin (Weeks et al., 1979; Pollock, 1974).

 
Fig. 1. Copelandia cyanescens (berk. et Br.) Singer.
Average sized specimens from Grass fed Cattle. Photo: J. W. Allen, Kualoa, O'ahu.

 
Fig. 2. Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. et Br.) Singer.
Large specimens common in the dung of grain fed cattle.
Photo: J. W. Allen, Livestock and Experimental Farm, Kahuku, O'ahu.

 
Fig. 3. Copelandia bispora melençon et Bertault) SInger and Weeks.
Observe the pitted and wrinkled caps resulting from sun exposure.
Photo: J. W. Allen. Livestock and Experimental Farm, Kuhuku, O'ahu.

 
Fig. 4. Copelandia bispora (Melençon et Bertault) Singer and Weeks.
Another collection from grain fed cattle.


 
Fig. 5. Copelandia cambodgeniensis (Ola'h et heim) Singer and Weeks.
Typical morphology of Copelandia referred to as 'gold tops'.
Photo: J. W. Allen. Kahalu'u, O'ahu.

 
Fig. 6. Panaeolus subbalteatus (Berk. et Br.) Sacc.
Youthful growth of freshly collected fruiting bodies.
Photo: J. W. Allen. Common in Kula, Maui.

 
Fig. 7. Panaeolus subbalteatus (Berk et Br.)
Fruiting bodies in late stages of developement.
Photo: J. W. Allen. Comoon at the Livestock and Experimental Farm, Kuhuku, O'ahu.

 

Seven other coprophilous species recently collected and identified in the Hawaiian Islands (Hemmis, 1989, Pers. Comm.) are recognized as containing tryptamine derivatives, but have never been confirmed as psychoactive (Stijve, 1989, Pers. Comm., 1987; Lincoff and Mitchell, 1977, Pollock, 1976; Ola'h, 1970). These include Anellaria sepulchralis (Berk.) Singer (syn. Panaeolus antillarum (Fr.) Dennis sensu Dennis (Fig. 8), Panaeolus campanulatus (L.) Quel., Anellaria semiovata (Sow.) Pearson and Dennis (syn. Panaeolus semiovatus (Sow.) Lundell et Nannfelt (Fig. 9), Panaeolus sphrinctrinus (Fr.) Quel, Panaeolus qoossensiae Beeli (Fig. 10) and Psilocybe coprophila Guzmán (Fig. 11). Previous to this study, P. goossensiae had only been reported from Central West Africa (pers. comm., Stijve, 1990). All of these species have been collected on O'ahu (Table 2); most, if not all, also occur on other volcanic islands of the archipelago in coprophilous association with alien hoofed mammals.

 
Fig. 8. Anellaria sepulchralis (Berk.) Singer (syn.=Panaeolus antillarum) (Fr.) Dennis sensu Dennis.
Photo: J. W. Allen. Kualoa, O'ahu.

  Fig 9. Anellaria semiovata (Sow.) Pearson and Dennis (syn. Panaeolus semiovatus) (Sow) Lundell et Nannfelt.
Photo: T. Stijve, Vevey, Switzerland.

  Fig. 10. Panaeolus goossensiae Beeli. Fruiting in cattle dung; macroscopically similar to Panaeolus Sphrinctrinus (Fr.) Quel.
Photo: J. W. Allen, livestock and experimental farm, Kahuku, O'ahu.

  Fig. 11. Psilocybe coprophila Guzmán. Fruiting in horse dung.
Photo: J. W. Allen, Kualoa, Oah'u.

 

The Fly Agaric, Amanita muscaria (L.) Hooker (Fig. 12), which is known to have been used in the traditional rituals of several tribal societies (Wasson, l968), is sometimes employed for recreational use in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and elsewhere (Ott, 1978; Weil, l977). This agaric has been recently found growing in symbiosis with introduced Pine tree plantations in the montane region of Kaua'i near Koke'e and Pelihale. All the coprophilous fungi species referred to above contain indole alkaloids; in contrast, A. muscaria contains ibotenic acid and muscimol, which have different physiological and mind-altering effects than psilocybin and psilocin (Schultes and Hoffman, l980).

  Fig. 12. Amanita muscaria. Fresh specimens only known of from Kaua'i.
Photo: J. W.Allen, Astoria, Washington.

 

Both psilocybin and its dephosphorylated derivative psilocin were first detected in C. cyanescens by Heim, Hofmann, and Tscherter (1966), in C. tropicalis and C. cambodginiensis by Ola'h (1969, 1970), and in P. subbalteatus by Ola'h (1970). Baeocystin, a mono-analogue of psilocybin and psilocin, has also been detected in all four of the above mentioned species (Heim et al., 1966; Ola'h, 1970; Repke et al., 1977). Other tryptamines, such as norbaeocystin, N, N, dimethyltryptamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin), 5-hydroxytryptophan, and other indole related compounds have also been detected in these four species (Hall, 1973; Repke et al., 1977; Stijve, pers. comm., 1991). Although no recent collections from Hawai'i of C. anomala and C. tropicalis have been reported in the scientific literature, and according to Weeks et al. (1979), no chemical analysis of C. anomala or C. bispora (nomen confusum) has been performed, the junior author of this paper (JWA), bioassayed C. bispora in 1988 and experienced a mild psilocybian intoxication. It should also be noted that Copelandia spp. are known to bruise blue when handled. This bluing reaction in fungi is usually an indication of the presence of psilocybin and psilocin (Singer, 1975; Weeks et al., 1979).

TABLE 1
Psychoactive Fungi of Hawaii  
Next Page
Return to Articles Index
Return to Main Index