SPECIES IDENTIFICATION AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOACTIVE FUNGI IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

Revised May 1, 2002 and August 29, 2007
Copyright 1998-2007 by John W. Allen

Hawaiian Habitat on Kauai near Port Allen
Photo: J. W. Allen

SPECIES IDENTIFICATION AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
OF
PSYCHOACTIVE FUNGI IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

3.4. Chemical Analyses

Chemical analyses of collections A and B, comprised of specimens of C. cambodginiensis, revealed a high percentage of psilocybin compared to C. cyanescens. This indicates that C. cambodginiensis may be a more potent psychoactive species than other Copelandia spp. Both plates I (Fig. 13) and II (Fig. 14) show the TLC analyses of collections A-I in the nano-cellulose/BAW system, using pDMCA as a chromogenic reagent; but plate I (Fig. 13) was taken a few minutes after spraying, and plate II (Fig. 14) a few hours later. The results of the analysis of P. canbodginiensis are presented below.

TABLE 6
Result of analysis of Copelandia cambodgeniensis Ola'h

Panaeolus cambodginiensis Ola'h
Collection A July 17, 1990, Kahalu'u, O'ahu. Two mature specimens.
Collection B July 22, 1990, Kahalu'u, O'ahu. Numerous primordial size specimens.
A B Psilocin 0.5 - 0.6 % 0.3 - 0.5 %
Psilocybin 0.55 % 0.13 %
Baeocystin 0.02 % <0.005 %
Tryptophan <0.005 % 0.008 %
Tryptamine <0.005 % 0.005 %
Urea 0.1 % 0.56 %
(All values above are in percentage of dry matter.)

TABLE 7
Results of analysis of Panaeolus goosensiae

The analytical results of Panaeolus goosensiae presented below were obtained by TLC in the Nano-Si0²/BAW system, using pDMCA-spray.
Panaeolus goosensiae Ola'h. Collected October 1989, Kahalu'u, O'ahu
psilocin/psilocybin <0.01 %
5-OH-tryptophan <0.005 %
Urea 0.6 %
Serotonin 0.01 %
(All values above are in percentage of dry matter.)
An unknown (tryptamine?) derivative commonly found in several TLC analysis of suspected psychoactive fungi was also present (but unquantified) in the P. goossensiae specimens analyzed in this study.

Plates III (Fig. 15) and IV (Fig. 16) show the analytical results of Anellaria sepulchralis(=Panaeolus antillarum) performed by TLC. Plate III (Fig. 15) shows the TLC analysis in the same nano-cellulose/BAW-pDMCA system. Plate IV (Fig. 16) was performed by TLC, nano/Si0²/BAW (See Table 5 for analytical results of Plate III and IV).

Three collections of Copelandia species from various origin (O'ahu, Hawai'i, September 1989, December 1989, and July 1990; Australia 1989; and Thailand 1990) were sent to Dr. T. Stijve of Nestec Ltd., Vevey, Switzerland for chemical analyses. Stijve forwarded carpophores of the above mentioned collections to Dr. Ewald Gerhardt of the Botanische Museum in Berlin for botanical identification. Gerhardt identified all three collections as Panaeolus cyanescens (Bk. and Br.) Sacc. (syn=Copelandia cyanescens (Bk. and Br.) Sing). Subsequent chemical analysis by Stijve (1992) in the TLC cellulose/BAW system revealed that the collections from Australia and Thailand were virtually exempt of psilocybin while the Hawaiian collections were loaded with psilocybin.

Additionally, clinical research involving human subjects who bioassayed the Hawaiian specimens claimed that the fungi consumed in the experiment were more potent than an equal amount of Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.:Secr.) Kumm. According to Stijve, "four volunteers reported that [the ingestion of] 1 g of powdered pooled Hawaiian carpophores (contain[ing] 0.6 percent psilocin and 0.2 percent psilocybin) produced a most powerful psychotropic effect." Stijve also noted that "no disagreeable side effects were reported by the four volunteers."

4. Discussion and Conclusions

While illicit use of psychoactive dung fungi is widespread throughout the populated high islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, relatively few serious social or medical problems have been reported regarding the consumption of these mushrooms in non-traditional settings (see Allen and Merlin l989). However, the illegal aspects of their use notwithstanding, it should be noted that occasionally some individuals experience adverse psychological reactions, especially those who have a problematic mental set or are in unfavorable environmental settings (see Allen et al., 1991 for a comparative review of illicit psilocybian mushroom use in Australia and New Zealand). Amateur mushroom foragers, especially those in search of psychoactive fungi, have rarely acquired any knowledge of the scientific names of those species which they often haphazardly ingest for mind-altering purposes. Most collectors of psychoactive fungi create original epithets or utilize others which are already in use. In Hawai'i, the same epithet may be used to refer to all of the psychoactive fungi species which are collected for illicit consumption. World wide, the most common epithets in use appear to be "magic mushrooms" and "shrooms".

Recreational users of psychoactive mushrooms in Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Northwest United States often refer to their favorite species by commonly known epithets (Allen et al., 1991). Among the English speaking people who ingest these fungi, the most common nicknames are "magic mushrooms" and "shrooms"; however, in Australia, C. cyanescens is often referred to as "Blue Meanies" whereas, in Hawaii, all Copelandia spp. are commonly referred to as "Gold Caps" or "Golden Tops". On the other hand, in Mexico, southeastern areas of the United States, and some regions of Australia, these latter two epithets usually refer to the macroscopic coloration of the pileus of Psilocybe cubensis. On the island of Hawai'i, C. cyanescens has been referred to as "Cone Heads" (Stapleton, 1981). Furthermore, a mushroom identification guide published on the mainland, identifies small specimens of the genus Copelandia by the common epithet "Dimple Tops" (Stevens and Gee, 1977).

It should be noted that numerous informants have reported the occurrence of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer in grazing areas on the islands of Hawai'i and Kaua'i. Although P. cubensis is a very widely recognized, mind-altering coprophilous fungus (Badham, l984; Allen et al., l991), there is no botanical verification that this species is naturalized in Hawai'i. While P. cubensis may not reproduce on its own, in some areas of the Hawaiian Islands it is reportedly grown in vitro and most likely has been sold on the illicit market. For example, an entrepreneur, who advertizes licit mushroom growing kits from the mainland U.S., informed one of the authors of this paper (JWA) that his company sells from 5 to 10 complete P. cubensis growing kits each month to residents of Hawai'i.

It should also be noted that another spore entrepreneur ("Sun Magic" company) in Seattle, Washington, advertises spores and growing kits for "Hawaiian" strains of psychoactive fungi referred to as "Hawaiian Cyan" and "Psilocybe cubensis". The fungi kits with the so-called "Hawaiian Cyan" probably contain spores of C. cyanescens. As noted previously, P. cubensis probably does not occur in Hawai'i, except clandestinely under artificial conditions.

While the authors of this present paper refer to these dung fungi as being psychoactive rather than entheogenic (see Ruck et al., l979), we would like to clarify the ethnomycological associations of these modifying terms for the reader. We use the word psychoactive in reference to psilocybian fungi and/or other drug plants used in non-traditional settings for mind altering purposes. The term entheogenic generally refers to sacred drug plants consumed traditionally to experience a spiritual state of consciousness.

Although this study demonstrates that several psychoactive fungi species occur naturally in Hawai'i, and that most of these species are known to be ingested illicitly for recreational purposes, we believe that further research should be conducted in the Hawaiian Islands regarding the distribution and use of such fungi in these islands. Surveys of such illicit fungi use in non-traditional settings should be also undertaken; and the results of the statistical analysis concerning ingestion should be presented for scrutiny by both the public and scientific community.

5. Acknowledgements

The authors of this paper would like to extend their appreciation to Dr. Rolf Singer of the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois and Dr. Gyorgy Miklos-Ola'h of the Universite Laval, Quebec, Canada for their assistance in the preparation of this manuscript prior to publication. We also acknowledge the valuable technical assistance of Dr. Tjakko Stijve of Nestec Ltd., Vevey, Switzerland. In addition we thank Alana Gay of Hilo along with Marty Burton and Alan Pence of Makawao, Maui for their help in collecting specimens for herbarium deposit. Appreciation is also extended to John Morgan, Jim Fischer, Bob Johnson and John Knott for allowing the junior author permission to collect herbarium specimens on their properties.

6. References

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PHOTOGRAPHIC CAPTIONS

All photographs (except Figure # 9, Anellaria semiovata) by John W. Allen. Figures # 9, 13-16 by Tjakko Stijve.

13. Plate I. TLC analysis of Copelandia collections A-I. Notice that all of the tryptamines can be seen clearly. 1 = psilocin, 2 = oxidation, 3 = serotonin, 4 = urea, 5 = psilocybin, 6 = 5-OH-tryptophan (absent), 7 = tryptamine (absent).

14. Plate II. TLC analysis of Copelandia collections A-I. Taken a few hours after plate I. Observe that all the tryptamines have become fairly obscure when the urea has reach its maximun intensity. 1 = psilocin, 2 = oxidation, 3= serotonin, 4 = urea, 5 = psilocybin, 6 = 5-OH-tryptophan (absent), 7 = tryptamine (absent).

15. Plate III. TLC analytical results of A. sepulchralis (syn. P. antillarum). M = methanol extract, B = ethanol extract. 1 = tryptamine, 2 = serotonin, 3 = urea, 4 = psilocin extract in Psilocybe zapotecorum Heim, 5 = 5-OH-tryptophan.

16. Plate IV. TlC analytical results of A. sepulchralis (syn. P. antillarum). 1 = tryptophan, 2 = serotonin, 3=urea.

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